The Fed, as the nation’s monetary policy authority, influences the availability and cost of money and credit to promote a healthy economy. Congress has given the Fed two coequal goals for monetary policy: first, maximum employment; and, second, stable prices, meaning low, stable inflation. This “dual mandate” implies a third, lesser-known goal of moderate long-term interest rates.
The Fed’s interpretations of its maximum employment and stable prices goals have changed over time as the economy has evolved. For example, during the long expansion after the Great Recession of 2007–2009, labor market conditions became very strong and yet did not trigger a significant rise in inflation. Accordingly, the Fed de-emphasized its prior concern about employment possibly exceeding its maximum level, focusing instead only on shortfalls of employment below its maximum level. In this newer interpretation, formalized in the FOMC’s August 2020 “Statement on Longer-Run Goals and Monetary Policy Strategy, Federal Reserve Board of Governors, August 27, 2020.
Monetary policy is about how the policy rate influences variables such as inflation and economic growth.
Money is essential in an economy. We pay with money, we save money and money serves as a standard measure of value. In order for money to fulfil these functions, we must be able to trust that the value of money remains stable over time.
The Stortinget [Norwegian Parliament] and the Government have charged Norges Bank with the task of ensuring a stable Norwegian krone through low and stable inflation. All the measures implemented by the Bank to achieve that aim is monetary policy.
The most important target is low and stable inflation
With low and stable inflation, we trust that money can be exchanged for a predictable amount of goods and services in the future. This makes it easier for us to plan our finances and make sensible economic choices.
In a regulation on monetary policy, the Government has defined low and stable inflation as annual consumer price inflation of close to 2 percent over time.
Because inflation is the most important monetary policy target, we say that monetary policy in Norway has an inflation target and the monetary policy regime is referred to as inflation targeting. This is also the case in countries such as Sweden, the euro area, the UK, the US and Canada.
Economic stability is another important target
At the same time, monetary policy in Norway should be flexible in order to contribute to high and stable output and employment and restrain the build-up of financial imbalances
In practice, this means that Norges Bank may allow inflation to deviate from the inflation target during certain periods if justified by these other important considerations.
The policy rate is the most important instrument
The most important monetary policy instrument is the interest rates on banks’ deposits and loans in Norges Bank, and the most important rate among these is the policy rate.
The policy rate is set by the Monetary Policy and Financial Stability Committee at its monetary policy meetings. The Committee usually has eight monetary policy meetings a year.
The Monetary Policy Report provides overview, insight and outlook
Norges Bank publishes the Monetary Policy Report with financial stability assessment four times a year. The Report describes the situation in the Norwegian and global economy, and presents a picture of Norges Bank’s expectations concerning future developments in the policy rate, inflation and the wider economy.
Norges Bank’s monetary policy strategy
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Both rapidly rising and falling prices can pose challenges to the economy. The best course of action is therefore to aim for something in between.Why do we want low and stable inflation?
How does the policy rate influence you?
The level of the policy rate influences, directly and indirectly, many of the everyday economic decisions you make.
Monetary policy is a central bank's actions and communications that manage the money supply. Central banks use monetary policy to prevent inflation, reduce unemployment, and promote moderate long-term interest rates.
Definitions and Examples of Monetary Policy
Monetary policy increases liquidity to create economic growth. It reduces liquidity to prevent inflation. Central banks use interest rates, bank reserve requirements, and the number of government bonds that banks must hold. All these tools affect how much banks can lend. The volume of loans affects the money supply.
The money supply includes forms of credit, cash, checks, and money market mutual funds. The most important of these forms of money is credit. Credit includes loans, bonds, and mortgages.
In a recession, central banks might combat high unemployment by giving banks more money. Banks in turn lower interest rates, which allows businesses to hire more employees. This is an example of expansionary monetary policy.
How Does Monetary Policy Work?
Central banks have three monetary policy objectives. The most important is to manage inflation. The secondary objective is to reduce unemployment, but only after controlling inflation. The third objective is to promote moderate long-term interest rates.
The U.S. Federal Reserve, like many other central banks, has specific targets for these objectives. It wants the core inflation rate to be around 2%. Beyond that, it prefers a natural rate of unemployment of between 3.5% and 4.5%.
Note
The Fed's overall goal is healthy economic growth. That's a 2% to 3% annual increase in the nation's gross domestic product.
Types of Monetary Policy
Central banks use contractionary monetary policy to reduce inflation. They reduce the money supply by restricting the volume of money banks can lend. The banks charge a higher interest rate, making loans more expensive. Fewer businesses and individuals borrow, slowing growth.
Central banks use expansionary monetary policy to lower unemployment and avoid recession. They increase liquidity by giving banks more money to lend. Banks lower interest rates, making loans cheaper. Businesses borrow more to buy equipment, hire employees, and expand their operations. Individuals borrow more to buy more homes, cars, and appliances. That increases demand and spurs economic growth.
Monetary Policy vs. Fiscal Policy
Ideally, monetary policy should work hand-in-glove with the national government's fiscal policy. It rarely works this way. Government leaders get re-elected for reducing taxes or increasing spending. As a result, they adopt an expansionary fiscal policy. To avoid inflation in this situation, the Fed is forced to use a restrictive monetary policy.
For example, after the Great Recession, Congress became concerned about the U.S. debt. It exceeded the debt-to-GDP ratio of 100%. As a result, fiscal policy became contractionary just when it needed to be expansionary. To compensate, the Fed injected massive amounts of money into the economy with quantitative easing.
Monetary Policy Tools
All central banks have three tools of monetary policy in common.
Open Market Operations
Central banks all use open market operations [OMO]. With OMO, the central bank can create new money by buying government securities, such as Treasury bonds, and issuing new money. The central bank can likewise contract the money supply by selling those securities from its balance sheet and removing the money received from circulation.
The Reserve Requirement
The reserve requirement is when the central banks tell their members how much money they must keep on reserve each night. Not everyone needs all their money each day, so it is safe for the banks to lend most of it out. That way, they have enough cash on hand to meet most demands for redemption. Previously, this reserve requirement has been 10%. However, effective March 26, 2020, the Fed has reduced the reserve requirement to zero.
When a central bank wants to restrict liquidity, it raises the reserve requirement. That gives banks less money to lend. When it wants to expand liquidity, it lowers the requirement. That gives members banks more money to lend. Central banks rarely change the reserve requirement because it requires a lot of paperwork for the members.
The Discount Rate
The discount rate is how much a central bank charges members to borrow funds from its discount window. It raises the discount rate to discourage banks from borrowing. That action reduces liquidity and slows the economy. By lowering the discount rate, it encourages borrowing. That increases liquidity and boosts growth.
Note
In the United States, the Federal Open Market Committee typically sets the discount rate higher than the federal funds rate. The Fed prefers banks to borrow from each other.
Other Tools
Most central banks have many more tools that work together to manage bank reserves.
The Fed has two other major tools it can use. It is most well-known is the Fed funds rate. This rate is the interest rate that banks charge each other to store their excess cash overnight. The target for this rate is set at the FOMC meetings. The fed funds rate impacts all other interest rates, including bank loan rates and mortgage rates.
Note
Read more about the most recent Federal Open Market Committee [FOMC] meeting and changes to the fed funds rate here.
The Fed, as well as many other central banks, also use inflation targeting. It sets expectations that the banks want some inflation. The Fed’s inflation goal is 2% for the core inflation rate. That encourages people to stock up now since they know prices are rising later. It stimulates demand and economic growth.
When inflation is lower than the core, the Fed is likely to lower the fed funds rate. When inflation is at the target or above, the Fed will raise its rate.
The Federal Reserve created many new tools to deal with the 2008 financial crisis. These included the Commercial Paper Funding Facility and the Term Auction Lending Facility. It stopped using most of them once the crisis ended.
Key Takeaways
- The Federal Reserve uses monetary policy to manage economic growth, unemployment, and inflation. It does this to influence production, prices, demand, and employment.
- Expansionary monetary policy increases the growth of the economy, while contractionary policy slows economic growth.
- The three objectives of monetary policy are controlling inflation, managing employment levels, and maintaining long-term interest rates.
- The Fed implements monetary policy through open market operations, reserve requirements, discount rates, the federal funds rate, and inflation targeting.
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Other SubmitSources
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Congressional Research Service. "Monetary Policy and the Federal Reserve: Current Policy and Conditions," Page 7.
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. "The Federal Reserve's Response to the Financial Crisis and Actions to Foster Maximum Employment and Price Stability."
What is the most important element of a monetary policy?
Good monetary policy assigns to price stability the highest weight in the central bank's objective function, making clear that price stability outweighs other goals [e.g., exchange rate stability and promotion of high employment] when there is perceived or actual conflict among various policy objectives.What is the important of monetary policy?
A key role of central banks is to conduct monetary policy to achieve price stability [low and stable inflation] and to help manage economic fluctuations. The policy frameworks within which central banks operate have been subject to major changes over recent decades.What are the main monetary policies?
The main monetary policy instruments available to central banks are open market operation, bank reserve requirement, interest rate policy, re-lending and re-discount [including using the term repurchase market], and credit policy [often coordinated with trade policy].What are the three main monetary policy?
The Fed has traditionally used three tools to conduct monetary policy: reserve requirements, the discount rate, and open market operations.